MIS AND DATA PROCESSING

MIS AND DATA PROCESSING

MIS can be differentiated from data processing from the users point of view. Historically the data processing was the first subsystem to be used in business organisations. It is recently that the data processing is being treated as a lower level activity as compared to MIS. Data processing is basically aimed at processing of transactions generated from day-to-day operations within an organisation; whereas MIS aims at supplying information from the processed data to various cadres of management to support their decision making process. The use of computers for processing of data actually started/with data processing. MIS has evolved only recently within the organisations. Data processing could be further divided into four different streams as given below:

a) Office Automation Systems (OAS)

The Office Automation Systems are these activities and processes which are undertaken on the computer to perform the office routines such as routine correspondence scheduling  appointments, calendar functions, bulk mail, word processing. etc. However it may be noted, that OAS does not lead to generation of data directly. These systems are designed following basic principles of Office Management.

b) Transaction Processing Systems (TPS)

The transactions which get generated on a day-to-day basis in an organisation are 

collected. stored and used for updating master data files so as to change the current status of organisational entities within an organisation. The Transaction Processing Systems are primarily aimed at updating the history files. generation of detailed transaction reports and preparing summarised processed transaction data. Examples of Transaction Processing Systems are sales accounting systems, financial accounting systems personnel accounting systems, etc. All these systems are designed following the basic principles of accounting.

c) Management Information Systems (MIS)

These systems are designed for providing/information to the key functionaries in an organisation. These systems make use of the already processed transaction data which is outputted from TPS and generate information reports after processing data. The examples of this kind of systems could be personnel information systems, marketing information systems, sales information systems, production and operations systems, etc. These systems are designed following the principles of organisational theory. The major group of users for this kind of systems are the middle levels of management.

(d) Decision Support Systems (DSS)

DSS are the highest order of systems among the computer based information systems. These systems make use of the summarised organisational data as well as external data collected from the environment of the organisation. The internal data is mostly used for studying the trends whereas external data is mostly used for understanding the environment. These systems also make use of analytical and planning models such as management science and operations research models. These systems are mostly used for assisting the top management in taking unstructured and semi-structured decisions having long-term impact on the organisational performance.

OPERATING ELEMENTS OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

Any information system will make use of the following physical components:

a) Hardware: The equipment and devices for inputting, outputting, secondary storage, processing as well as communications in the system.

b) Software: The set of programmes to facilitate processing procedures; it includes systems software, applications software and the model base.

c) Data Base: The organisational data to be used by various software programmes is usually stored in the form of files and database on the physical storage media such as computer tapes, disc drives, floppy diskettes.

d) Procedures: The operating procedures documented in the form of physical manuals constitute an important part of MIS components. These documents could be divided into three major types: Operating Manuals, User Manuals, and Systems Manuals.

e) Operating Personnel: The manpower operating these information svstems include systems managers, systems analysts, data administrators, programmers, data entry ( and computer operators.

Processing Functions

The major processing functions in information systems include the following:

a) Processing of business transactions: To capture, collect,.record,‘store and process the events of business interest, so that their effect should be carried over to the organisational performance records.

b) Updation of master files: The effect of these transactions is carried over to the , status files of the organisational performance. Master files at any given time shall reflect the status of any entity after having incorporated the impact of 

up-to-moment transactions.

c) Generation of information reports: After having processed the transactions and updation of master files, the information reports are generated so as to assist the managers in their decision making.

(d) Processing of interactive enquiries: On-line information processing systems provide the facility of responding to the business queries raised by the managers on the data files-both master as well as transaction files.

e) Providing interactive analytical support: The key decision makers not only need to interact with the data files for extracting data, with the help of scientific and planning models, they also require on-line processing support to analyse, the impact of some possible actions. When the system is able to extract data from 

relevant files and address this to the models chasm by the user, this leads to a , Decision Support System.

MIS AND TOP MANAGEMENT

In order to relate the information systems to the corporate strategy in an organisation, it becomes important that the top management should take keen 

interest in the development and implementation of information systems. More often than not, it has been found that the top management does not take keen interest in the development of structured, formalized and public information systems.The key managers normally tend to depend upon their informally designed private information systems, It is necessary that, for successful implementation of information systems in an organisation, a corporate plan should be prepared covering a period of 5 to 10 years for the organisation. The components of corporate plan should include a mechanism for implementation, proposed organisational structure and changes over a period of time, applications to be computerised issues relating to operations management, procurement of equipments and training of staff and effective control of information system function. It could be noted that the companies belonging to the strategic cell need to look after their processing activity more carefully Where as in turnaround cell the companies might be able to convert their processing function as a major competitive weapon. In the factory setting, there is not much to plan, yet the existing applications should be continued. In support cell, processing is not at all critical to the success of the organisation. The top management involvement varies from critical in strategic cell to just negligible in support cell.

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Privacy Policy

Privacy Policy

This privacy policy has been compiled to better serve those who are concerned with how their
 'Personally Identifiable Information' (PII) is being used online. PII, as described in US privacy
 law and information security, is information that can be  used on its own or with other information
 to identify,  contact, or locate a single person, or to identify an individual in context. Please read our
 privacy policy carefully to get a clear  understanding of how we collect, use, protect or otherwise
 handle your Personally Identifiable Information in accordance with our website.

What personal information do we collect from the people that visit our blog, website or app?

When ordering or registering on our site, as appropriate, you may be asked to enter your email
 address or other details to help you with your experience.

When do we collect information?

We collect information from you when you place an order, subscribe to a newsletter or enter information
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How do we use your information?

We may use the information we collect from you when you register, make a purchase, sign up
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certain other site features in the following ways:

      • To personalize your experience and to allow us to deliver the type of content and product 
offerings in which you are most interested.

      • To improve our website in order to better serve you.

      • To administer a contest, promotion, survey or other site feature.

      • To ask for ratings and reviews of services or products

      • To follow up with them after correspondence (live chat, email or phone inquiries)

Do we use 'cookies'?

Yes. Cookies are small files that a site or its service provider transfers to your computer's hard drive
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We use cookies to:

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      • Compile aggregate data about site  traffic and site interactions in order to offer better site
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You can choose to have your computer warn you each time a cookie is being sent, or you can choose
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If users disable cookies in their browser:

If you turn cookies off, some features will be disabled. Some of the features that make your site 
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However, you will still be able to place orders .

Third-party disclosure

We do not sell, trade, or otherwise transfer to outside parties your Personally Identifiable Information.

Third-party links

Occasionally, at our discretion, we may include or offer third-party products or services on our 
website. These third-party sites have separate and independent privacy policies. We therefore 
have no responsibility or liability for the content and activities of these linked sites. Nonetheless, 
we seek to protect the integrity of our site and welcome any feedback about these sites.

Google

Google's advertising requirements can be summed up by Google's Advertising Principles. They 
are put in place to provide a positive experience for users. https://support.google.com/adwordspolicy
/answer/1316548?hl=en

We use Google AdSense Advertising on our website.

Google, as a third-party vendor, uses cookies to serve ads on our site Google's use of the DART 
cookie enables  it to serve ads to our users based on previous visits to our site and other sites 
on the Internet. Users may opt-out of the use of the DART cookie by Visiting the Google Ad and 
Content Network  privacy policy.

We have implemented the following:

      • Remarketing with Google AdSense

      • Google Display Network Impression Reporting

      • Demographics and Interests Reporting

      • DoubleClick Platform Integration

We, along with third-party vendors such as Google use first-party cookies (such as the Google 
Analytics cookies) and third-party cookies (such as the DoubleClick cookie) or other third-party
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service functions as they relate to our website.

Opting out:
Users can set preferences for how Google advertises to you using the Google Ad Settings page.
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California Online Privacy Protection Act

CalOPPA is the first state law in the nation to require commercial websites and online services to 
post a privacy  policy. The law's reach stretches well beyond California to require any  person or 
company in the United States (and conceivably the world) that  operates websites collecting  
Personally Identifiable Information from California consumers to post a  conspicuous privacy policy 
on its  website stating exactly the information being collected and those individuals or companies
 with whom it is being shared. - See more at: http://consumercal.org/california-online-privacy-protection
-act-caloppa/#sthash.0FdRbT51.dpuf

According to CalOPPA, we agree to the following:

Users can visit our site anonymously. Once this privacy policy is created, we will add a link to it
 on our home page or as a minimum, on the first significant page after entering our website. Our
 Privacy Policy link includes the word 'Privacy' and can easily be found on the page specified above.

You will be notified of any Privacy Policy changes:

      • On our Privacy Policy Page Can change your personal information:

      • By emailing us

How does our site handle Do Not Track signals?

We honor Do Not Track signals and Do Not Track, plant cookies, or use advertising when a Do Not
 Track (DNT) browser mechanism is in place.

Does our site allow third-party behavioral tracking?

It's also important to note that we allow third-party behavioral tracking

COPPA (Children Online Privacy Protection Act)

When it comes to the collection of personal information from children  under the age of 13 years 
old, the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) puts parents in control. The Federal Trade 
Commission, United States' consumer protection agency, enforces the COPPA Rule, which spells
 out what operators of websites and online services must do to protect children's privacy and 
safety online. We do not specifically market to children under the age of 13 years old.

Fair Information Practices

The Fair Information Practices Principles form the backbone of privacy law in the United States and the
 concepts they  include have played a significant role in the development of data protection laws around
the globe.Understanding the Fair Information Practice Principles and how they should be implemented
 is critical to comply with the various privacy laws that protect personal information.In order to be in line
 with Fair  Information Practices we will take the  following responsive action, should a data breach
 occur:

We will notify the users via in-site notification

      • Within 7 business days

We also agree to the Individual Redress Principle which requires that individual have the right to
 legally pursue enforceable rights against data collectors and processors who fail to adhere 
to the law. This principle requires not only that individuals have enforceable rights against data users,
 but also that individuals have recourse to courts or government agencies to investigate and/or
 prosecute non-compliance by data processors.

CAN SPAM Act

The CAN-SPAM Act is a law that sets the rules for commercial email, establishes requirements for 
commercial messages, gives recipients  the right to have emails stopped from being sent to them,
 and spells out tough penalties for violations. We collect your email address in order to:

      • Send information, respond to inquiries, and/or other requests or questions To be in accordance
 with CANSPAM, we agree to the following:

      • Not use false or misleading subjects or email addresses.

      • Identify the message as an advertisement in some reasonable way.

      • Monitor third-party email marketing services for compliance, if one is used.

      • Honor opt-out/unsubscribe requests quickly.

      • Allow users to unsubscribe by using the link at the bottom of each email.

If at any time you would like to unsubscribe  from receiving future emails, you can email us at

      • Follow the instructions at the bottom of each email.and we will promptly remove you from ALL
 correspondence.

Contacting Us

If there are any questions regarding this privacy policy, you may contact us using the information below.

gyannworld.blogspot.in

Korba

Korba, Chhattisgarh 495684

India

crackcgpsc@gmail.com

Last Edited on 2017-02-26

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Decision making-IV( RATIONAL INDIVIDUAL MODELS OF DECISION MAKING )

RATIONAL INDIVIDUAL MODELS OF DECISION MAKING

Because organisations are made up of individuals, it makes sense to build information systems that facilitate individual decision making, wherever possible. Different assumptions have been made while proposing some model or the other.

1. Rational Model

Some economists, mathematicians and management experts believe that the decisions are always made rationally because the decision maker:

* knows his or her objectives and ranks them in order of importance;

*knows all possible alternative solutions to the decision problem;

*I knows the relative pros and cons of each alternative; and

*chooses the alternative that maximises attainment of the objective.

Such idealistic assumptions have their share of criticism. Decision makers are not so well informed as to consider all the alternatives or to know all consequences.  Moreover, it is not just a singular objective that is pursued in real life situations. Still, 

despite these criticisms, the rational model remains a powerful and attractive model of human decision making.

2. Bounded Rationality and Satisficing

Instead of searching for all of the alternatives and consequences (unlimited rationality) as in the preceding model, people limit the search process to sequentially ordered alternatives (alternatives that are not radically different from the current policy. Wherever possible they avoid new, uncertain alternatives and rely instead on tried-and-true rules, standard operating procedures) and programmes. Individuals and/or organisations have multiple goals, some in conflict with each other also. Even goals are prioritised or placed in a hierarchy. In this way rationality is bounded. Simon proposes the ‘satisficing’ approach rather than the ‘optimising approach’.

3. Muddling through Model

In 1959, Lindblom proposed the most radical departure from the rational model in his article on the “science of muddling through”. He described this method of decision making, as one of “successive limited comparisons”. Here values are chosen at the same time as policies, and no easy means-end analysis is possible. For instance labour and management can rarely agree on values, but they can agree on specific policies. Because of the limits on human rationality, Lindblom proposes, ‘incremental decision making’, or choosing policies most like the previous policy. Non-incremental policies are a political (not likely to bring agreement among important groups) and dangerous as nobody knows what they will lead to. Lastly, it is argued that choices are not “made”. Instead decision making involves a continuous process in which final. decisions are always being modified to accommodate changing objectives,  environments, value preferences and policy alternatives provided by decision makers.

4. Psychological Types and Frames of Reference

The psychologists have given an additional perception to the rationality concept. They say that humans differ in how they maximise their values as well as in using the frame of reference for interpreting information and making choices. Here we hear about the ‘cognitive style’ that refers to underlying personality dispositions in the treatment of information, the selection of alternatives and the evaluation of consequences. Systematic thinkers impose order on production and evaluation; intuitive thinkers are more open to unexpected iniormation and use multiple models and perspectives when evaluating information. Neither is more rational than the other. 

                    Some studies have found that humans have a deep seated tendency to avoid risks. when seeking gains but to accept risks in order to avoid losses. In other words, people are more sensitive to negative outcomes than to positive ones.

5. Implications of the Models for Information Systems

Decision making is not a simple process and hence some guidelines need be kept in mind when designing information systems. The following characteristics of Information systems could be encouraged :

---they are flexible and provide many options for handling data and evaluating information. .

---they are capable of supporting a variety of styles, skills and knowledge.

---they are capable of changing as humans learn and clarify their values:

---they are powerful in the sense of having multiple analytical and intuitive models for the evaluation of data and the ability to keep track of many alternatives and 

consequences.

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Decision making-III (Information requirement)

INFORMATION REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT DECISION MAKING STAGES

Let us now look into the information requirements for the various stages described In the earlier section.

1.Information for Intelligence Phase

Information Systems can help in the intelligence stage by providing information about external and internal conditions. Intelligence entails scanning the environment, either intermittantly or continuously, depending on the Situation to identify potential decision situations. For example:

a) a marketing executive makes periodic visits to key customers to review possible problems and identify new customer needs;

b) Sales analysis reports can be furnished to managers periodically, When exceptional sales situations occur, or on demand. These help managers to identify the status of sales performance. Also information from market research studies and external databases could also help managers (at higher levels) identify changes in consumer preferences or competitive activity;

c) A design engineer might attend a trade Show at the International Trade Fair to observe new materials that may or could 'be incorporated in future product designs. '

The Intelligence phase and its activities result in some type of dissatisfaction with current state or alternatively aid in the identification of potential rewards for a new state. The intelligence phase is the ‘tricky’ phase and embraces the unstructured non-programmed category of decisions that we have discussed earlier in this unit. 

                           A major information system capability is needed at this stage. It Should be possible to ' provide situation-Specific information to managers when they make adhoc Inquiries that could be unique and often unscheduled. All this Should be In addition to some of , the exception reports that might be churned out on a weekly basis.

Also read--Unstructured decision

2.Information for the Design Phase

The design phase involves designing of several possible solutions to the problems and evaluation of the alternate courses of action. Here more carefully specified and directed information activities and capabilities focused on specific designs are required. This stage calls for quite a deal of creativity and innovation. Idea generation and idea engineering could play a useful role in this stage of decision making. Techniques like Brainstorming, Nominal Group Technique etc. , could be utilised. Here also some decisions might fall in the category of highly structured, programmed .‘situations and move towards semi-structured or unstructured non-programmed ‘ decision situations. We have already discussed the use of decision tables for structured situations. Decision trees-could also be utilised by laying out graphically the alternative courses of action that are within the control of the decision maker and the states of nature, which are beyond the control of the decision maker. 

                As for the semi-structured or unstructured decisions, decision support systems (D88) and expert systems (ES) can provide assistance to managers. Models of business operations can be developed with decision support software, including advanced statistical, management science, and modelling packages, or less complex spreadsheet programs. These packages and models can then be used to manipulate information collected in the intelligence stage to develop and evaluate a variety of alternatives. Thus the information system should contain decision models to process data and generate alternative solutions. It should assist with checklists, templates of decision processes, scenarios etc. The models should assist in analysing 'the alternatives.

3. Information for the Choice Phase

In this stage a final selection of a particular course of action has to be made out of the various alternatives generated in the preceding design stage. Here a manager can use information tools that can calculate and keep track of the consequences, costs and Opportunities provided by each alternative designed in the previous stage. 

                   Information systems should help managers select a proper course of action. An information system is most effective if the results of design are presented in a decision-impelling‘format. The final choice would depend whether there is a single criteria or objective on which it is to be decided or whether the delcision situation is one which involves multiple criteria and objectives. Most decision making situations fall under the multiple criteria category, which is more difficult and complex and Operations researchers are just about getting into this field. The manager is hardly an optimiser now; he believes in satisficing. Worse still, one has to account for factors both subjective and objective, quantifiable and non-quantifiable, tangible and intangible. A technique called Analytic Hierarchic Process (AHP) developed by Saaty is finding a great deal of application in such situations and seems to be becoming a great boon for decision makers. An ‘expert choice’ software is available for the purpose of prioritisation of alternatives. 

               The quality of the choice stage depends very much on the quality of inputs made from the previous two stages -intelligence and design phases. It is possible that the manager, even though at the choice stage, might like to refer and return to the previous stages and reopen the issues for more data or alternatives etc. Information systems can help managers in the choice stage in various ways. Managers can be provided with summarised and organised information emphasising major points such as major assumptions, resource requirements and expected results of each decision alternative. Some type of a ‘what-if’ simulation analysis could be established.

4. Informatio for the Implementation Phase

This is the final stage of the decision making process. It is concerned with implementing and monitoring. When the choice is made in the previous stage, the role of the system changes to the collection of data for further feedback and assessment. The information systems must help managers monitor the successful implementation of the decision. Here managers can use a reporting system that _ delivers routine reports on the progress of a specific solution. Some of the difficulties . that arise are resource constraints, and possible ameliorating actions. Support systems can range from full-blown Management Information Systems to much smaller systems and project planning (PERT/CPM based) software operating on micro-computers. Feedback about business operations affected by a decision helps a manager assess the decision’s success or failure, and whether follow-up decisions are needed.

Also read-Introduction to decision making

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How Stanford University was established ?

A lady in a faded light cotton dress and her husband, dressed in a homespun wornout suit got off the train in Boston, United States. They walked with a feeling of fear and shyness into the outer office of the President of Harvard University. They had no appointment to meet the President. The Secretary could tell in a moment that such awkward persons typical of rural areas had no business at Harvard University noted for business studies and law. The lady wrinkled her brow in anger and disgust. The man said softly that they wanted to see the President. The Secretary said in a sharp, short way that he would be busy all day. The lady replied that they would wait. 

                For hours, the Secretary took no notice of them. She hoped that they would become discouraged and go away. They did not. And the ,Secretary grew frustrated. She told the President that they would just see him for a few minutes and leave and he sighed in irritation and  gave a quick shake of his head.

              Being a man of importance he did not have time to spend with them. He hated country folk with homespun clothes moving in his outer office in an untidy way. The President, not gentle and harsh, walked stern-faced with dignity toward the couple. The lady told him that they had a son , who attended Harvard for one year and he was accidently killed a year ago. She continued that they would like to give a building to Harvard somewhere on the campus as a memorial to their son. The President rolled his eyes, and glanced at the couple. He then spoke out with anger that they had no idea how much a building would cost. He added that they had spent more than a seven and a half million dollars in the construction of a building over there. 

Also read:Secret of happy long life....

                         For a moment the lady was silent. The President was pleased. He could get rid of them then. And the lady turned to her husband and said quietly that was all it would cost to start a university. She told him that they would start their own university it he could agree. Her husband nodded. 

         The President’s face sank in confusion and in great doubt. Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford walked away.They travelled to Palo Alto in California. There they established the Stanford university that bears their name. It is a memorial to their son whom Harvard no longer cared about.

Source:- wisdom montly digest

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Decision making-2-management study

UNSTRUCTURED DECISIONS

Thus far we have been discussing the structured programmable decisions which are very large in number and perhaps more easy to handle as compared to the 

unstructured or relatively less structured decisions which we would now like to 

discuss. Though fewer in number as compared to the structured situations ,this category of decisions is more repetitive in nature, usually 'one shot’ occurrences for which Standard responses are usually not available Hence they recuire a creative process of problem solving which is specially tailored to meet the requirement of the situation on hand. In fact managers at higher evels in an organisation are usually faced with more such unstructured decision making situations. Some have aptly described the situations as somewhat 'strategic’ in nature as compared to the ‘tactical’ orientation of the structured decisions at the lower levels of management.

Strategic decisions are non-repetitive, vital and important and aim at determining or changing the ends or means of the enterprise.Since each manager, in the case of such unstructured, non-programmed decisions, may bring, his own personal beliefs, attitudes and value judgment to bear on the decision process, it is possible for two managers to often distinctly different solutions to the same aroblem, each  claiming that he is acting rationally. In fact the ability to make good non-programmed decisions helps to distinguish effective managers from ineffective managers. Unstructured decisions are not simple. They are usually quite complex in nature. We can’t shy away from them for someone has to ultimately make these decisions even though there are inherent dangers when confronting I'll-structured problems. Non-programed decisions are essentially new and unique. They have to be often solved de novo. There is no tried and true method of handling them. Unstructured decisions are those in which the decision maker must provide Judgment, evaluation and insights into the problem definition.

ADDITIONAL CATEGORIES

There are many ways of categorising decisions as proposed by various persons from time to time. We have already discussed structured and unstructured situations. Some ' have termed them as programmed/programmable and non-programmed/non programmable decisions.Yet others have talked of routine/repetitive and non-routine/non-repetitive decisions. Some have stated the range of tactical and strategic decisions, others have termed them as minor and major decisions. We can easily have just two classes of decisions as ‘ follows -

Class I : Unstructured, Non-programmable, Strategic, Major, Routine, Repetitive, Complex, Long-run.

Class Il : Structured, Programmed, tactical, Minor, Non-routine, Non-repetitive, Simple, Short-run.

Departmental, Inter-departmental and Enterprise Decisions

Let us discuss decisions that could he departmental, inter-departmental and  enterprise decisions. For instance, sanctioning leave to an employee is a departmental decision, but making a slight change in the design of the product is an interdepartmental decision, and entering a new line of business is an enterprise decision. The department level decision is strategic in nature whereas departmental level is tactical in nature .

Organisational and Personal Decisions

When an executive acts formally in his expected role in an organisation, he makes organisational decisions. However, when the manager takes a decision in his personal capacity and not as a member of the organisation, it is known as a personal decision. For instance, transfers that are effected by an executive are organisational decisions. However, an executive who decides to leave the present organisation is making a personal decision.

Individual and Group Decision Making

Decisions may be taken either by an individual or by a group or a committee. It is difficult to say which is a better method of taking decisions. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses. We are all aware of the delaying tactics that are adopted by institution of committees in the resolution of conflicts On the other hand, it is argued that two blockheads are better than one. There would be richer ideas and many more alternatives generated in the process. But when it comes to assessment of selection, there could be ‘lot of heat’ generated. How does one resolve such a situation? Is it by 

consensus? or by voting?

1) Individual Decisions

According to Simon, “It is impossible for the behaviour of a single isolated individual to reach any high degree of rationality. The number of alternatives he must explore so great, the information he would need to evaluate them so vast, that even an approximation to objective rationality is hard to conceive. The individual decision maker is an individual human being --the one factor most vital and most difficult understand because of various factors such as age, perception, intelligence, experience in a given area, confidence in decision making, time available, resource position, upbringing, family background, and so on that could come into play. 

             The most mysterious factor is still this decision making individual human being. How and why an “individual acts in a certain way at a certain time is still quite a mystery. The individual decision maker could have quite an amount of prejudice and bias that is inherent on account of perceptual processes which act as great filters. We only accept what we want to accept and hence only such information filters down to our senses, and secondly, the perception is highly subjective. The information gets , distorted to coincide with our pre-established beliefs, attitudes and values. 

               These are additionally ‘cognitive’ constraints. Psychologically we are always uncomfortable with decision making. We are never sure if our choice of the alternative was correct and optimum, until the impact of the implication of the decision has been felt. This makes us feel very insecure and could be one of the many causes of ‘stress' in individuals leading to hypertension 'and other health complications. 

                  No doubt it is important to have adequate and accurate information about the situation for good quality decision making. However, it must be recognised that “an individual has constraints of nature such as physical, psychological, sociological etc. These limit the amount of information the individual can handle.

ii) Group Decisions

As for group decisions, these are usually taken for major issues in order to secure wider cooperation, acceptability and coordination. Usually in a group like situation the chances of subjective errors are reduced and more options are thrown open. If the  group is larger, such decisions suffer from unnecessary delays, deadlocks and petty party politics.

Some advantages of group decisions are

i) increased acceptance by those affected and hence implementation is easier.

ii) Easier Coordination.

Ill) Easier Communication.

iv) More information processed on account of availability of a larger number of specialists in the group.

v) Group decision making is more democratic in nature. 

vi) Participative group process builds up a training ground for subordinates and others which allows for smooth handover when individuals leave the scene (no vacuum is created).

Let us novv enlist some of the disadvantages of group decisions.

i) Group decisions take longer.

ii) Groups can be indecisive.

iii) Groups can compromise.

iv) Groups can be dominated.

v) Group members may exhibit “focus effect” viz., the group may just focus on one or a few suggested alternatives and spend all the time in evaluating these and may never come up with other ideas thus limiting the choices

DECISION MAKING PROCESS 

Simon’s Decision Making Model

Let us now look at the decision making process as proposed by Herbert A. Simon. His model is a conceptual framework that divides the decision making process into 

the following stages or phases:

i) Intelligence Activities: At this stage, a search of the environment takes place to identify events and conditions requiring decisions. Data inputs are obtained, processed and examined for clues that may identify problems or opportunities.

ii) Design Facilities: At this stage, alternative courses of action are developed, analysed and evaluated. This involves processes to understand the problem, to generate solutions, and to test solutions for feasibility

iii) Choice & Implementation Activities: Here one has to select an alternative as course of action from those available. A choice is made, implemented and monitored.

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Decision Making1- Management study

INTRODUCTION TO DECISION MAKING

The field Of decision making is vast. There have been many approaches to managerial decision making.These have ranged from the strictly quantitative as typified by the methods of operations research -to those based on human and Organisational behaviour. It is only recently that those working in the area Of decision making have started to combine approaches that could cater to the multiplicity Of subjective and Objective factors, and the multiplicity of criteria and-Objectives -some in conflict with one another. 

            Decision making is an essential part Of management. Some have even suggested that. management 15 synonymous with decision making. Managers are decision makers and problem solvers. Whether a manager is involved in evaluating new Opportunities or eliminating long standing difficulties, decision making for management is essentially problem solving. The process of deciding is intimately related to the whole process of knowing (or cognition ). Knowing “what the problem is” will assist in deciding “what to do about it”. that us finding the best solution. This is basic for each individual personally and also for a professional manager, whose main orientation is towards the making of decisions There is always an implicit Opportunity loss associated with poor decisions. They are the foregone gains, profits or cost savings, which could have been realised had a better decision been made. 

        However the process by which one arrives at a decision is quite complex; in fact no one process can be applied to all decisions Over the decades, decision-making methods have evolved from primitive to supersophisticated, ranging from the instinctive/intuitive approach, to traditional precedent based approach, to the commonsense approach, to the scientific method: A decision involves many intuitive and deep-seated Cognitive mechanisms that cannot be observed fully or directly influenced. What can be influenced are the behaviour patterns, the analytical procedures and the sequence of logic that are followed 1n “making a decision Ideals, objectives and goals form the background against which decisions are made. 

            There are many types of decisions, some that are completely specified, some partly specified and many unspecified We shall discuss how computers have entered in decision aiding process, who all are the end users of the systems, the different types of decisions, the decision making process and the implications for the information systems analyst.

STRUCTURED DECISIONS

These structured decisions are those that can be programmed. They are essentially

repetitive routine and involve a definite pnocedure for handling them so that they do not have to be treated each time as if they were new. 

            It has been seen that in general at the lowest level in the organisation viz. the, Operational level and the managerial staff, deal mostly with such fairly well structured problem. In the past most successful applications of information systems have come in dealing with structured, operational and management control decisions. These fall realiy in the domain of transaction processing and it is for this reason that some researchers prefer to call such systems as TPS-Transaction Processing Systems, rather than MIS--Management Information Systems. 

        Thus structured decisions which are also called programmable decisions involve situations where the procedures to follow when a decision is needed can be specified in advance. Therefore such

decisions are structured or programmed by the decision procedures or decision rules develoed for them. structured decision could possibly involve what is known as a deterministic decision or an algorithmic (step y step procedure) decision. In this case, the outcome of a decision can be determined with certainty if a specified sequence of activities viz. the algorithm is performed. No doubt many decision situations do not all come under deterministic criteria. There might be probabilistic decision situations. Since, in this case enough probabilities about possible outcomes are known a decision can be statistically taken or determined with an acceptable probability of success.

Herbert A Simon stresses the programmable part of the structured decisions and“ accordingly terms ‘structured decisions’ as programmed decisions‘. In the programmed dccisions, a problem (or one very similar) occurs frequently enough so that a fixed routine or programme is established for solving its Programmed decision are in fact those that are made in accordance with some policy, rule or procedures so that they do not have TtTW handled de novo each time they occur. In fact these decisions are generally repetitive and routine and are obviously the easiest for managers to make It is for these reasons that such managerial problems are relegated to the supervisory level.The supervisors fall in the first entry ring of management It gives persons of this level the slight ‘kick’ or 'morale boost' as they have entered into 

‘ the management cateogry’. No doubt the perceptions will have to change since they have moved across from the worker/operator level to the other side of the table. Decisions implemented by the supervisors might feel elated, but when compared to managers at the higher levels, the supervisory level decisions are pretty straight forward and simple because of their structured nature. These decisions are in fact routine decisions and they require little deliberation from the top man’s point of view. 

        These routine decisions are taken against a familiar background in everyday business operations. Such decisions involve no extraordinary judgment, analysis or authority, since they are to traverse through more or less fixed avenues On account of the experience gained or because of the trivial nature of the problems on hand, management has already established a set of rulestolicies and procedures. With the organization's

Goals, policies and processes established, the routine decisions demand, on the part of managers, a power of selection of the best path as the 

connecting link between the given means and the established ends. 

               The structured decisions, often termed as programmed decisions, are labels that are derived from the Jargon of the computer field where a program is defined as a plan for the automatic solution of a problem. Programs are simply a string of instructions to accomplis an assignment. However, it is well known that all problems do not lend themselves to automatic programmed solutions. No doubt an information system analyst might be having his cherished dream of having all decisions in an organisation programmed or fully automatic. Then perhaps there would be no dividing line as regards variety of type of skills required by managers at various levels. You would recollect that studies have shown that more technical skills are required at the lower levels whereas more conceptual skills are required by managers at the higher levels, apart from human skills that are required at all levels of management.

       It has been seen that by far the greatest number of business decisions are repetitive and routine ones. If this is true, then there is an overriding need to automate or ' program these decisions so that managers and executives could delegate such problems to lower levels and have them made by one or more techniques of programmed decisions. It is interesting to note that in some cases even up to 90% of management decisions are routine ones. 

                Most programmed decisions are solvable by the ‘force of habit’. We go to our offices make decisions about the in-basket or in-tray correspondence, and take dozens of actions daily that are “programmed” through sheer-force of habit. In fact this is gained by ‘experience’ in an organisation. When ever there are turnovers, it is this valuable esperience that is lost, which could be quite costly. It usually takes time and money for newer recruits to acquire this experience. 

           The ‘force of habit' in fact leads to certain traditions, conventions and practices which might become a platform towards formal statement of rules, procedures, policies, etc. At this stage, it would be worthwhile to spend some time looking at what constitutes a rule, procedure or a policy. 

            A rule is a specific policy statement about the conduct of certain affairs. For instance a rule may state that any person who comes in late to work will face disciplinary action. it could be that if an employee is to start his office hours from 9.00 a. m. if he comes by 9.15 am he could be tolerated. Time between 9.15 a. m. to 9. 30 am could be allowed at best say thrice in a month. Anything beyond these limits would necessitate some disciplinary action. A rule is frequently used when confronting a well structured problem. Rules are usually rigid which might specifically tell about ‘dos and donts'. Rules are usually framed in a manner to take care of almost all situations. However, we do have instances where the rule applies ‘show me the man, I'll show you the rule’. You often hear the term that ‘rules are silent on this issue‘ Indeed rules are quoted again and again depending on what” is to be proved or  justified or rationalised in order to take the final decision. 

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Secret of Happy Long Life

Once they cross the age of 60, most Indians feel that 'they have become too old to do anything worthwhile in life. Those who work in government offices and private limited companies usually retire between the ages of 58 and 60. After retirement many of them suddenly find it difficult to pass their time. They feel as though life itself has become a burden. It is foolish to think so because there were many men and women who kept themselves busy right till the end of their life. They never gave up whatever they wished to achieve in life.
                          A Scottish doctor named, Winifred Rushforth, a psychoanalyst continued working even at the age of 97. Long back in 1909 this lady-doctor came to India as a medical missionary. Later
on , she returned to Scotland , founded the Davidson Institute for mental patients
and went on working without a break for the next of 50 years. A fall at the age of 97 injured her. She was heard saying that she had many things left to do and prayed to God for strength to continue her humanitarian work.
                     World’s greatest violin maker, Antonius Stradivarius was still active at the age of 93. English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes was busy writing at 91, just a few months before his death in December 1679. The age of 90 for many people may look like very great old age. But exactly at the age of 90, the famous Spanish artist, Pablo Picasso was busy drawing and engraving. He had already completed over 20,000 Paintings in his life.
         Another great painter, sculptor and poet was Italian Michelangelo. He was praised for his great works of art and he achieved great fame. Even at the age of 88 he was busy working on his masterpiece, painting the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome. All his life Michelangelo felt that he had never done enough. He worked to the very end, was still busy with the hammer and chisel and was trying to complete his marble statue, called the ‘The Rondanini Pieta’, a few days before his death in 1564.
          Great German writer, Johann Goethe was 8 1 years old when he finally finished his masterpiece, Faust in the summer of 1831. He had been working on it for over 50 years and when it was done, he felt that his life’s work was completed. Within a few months he was dead. Even the great Sir Winston Churchill did not sit quietly, although he was in his 80s.
At the age of 82, he published the first part of his four-volume work, ‘A History of the English-Speaking Peoples’, in 1956.      
            At the age of 82, William Gladstone became the Prime Minister of England and so did David Lloyd George. In our own country we had Morarji Desai who became the Prime Minister in 1977 when he was 81. So it is not age that is of importance. We should have enthusiasm for life, for there lies the secret of happiness. Older people can spend even an hour in gardening or walking to keep themselves physically fit. We should always remember that the quality of life is more important than the Sheer quantity of years. Moderate exercise and some hobby is essential for the elderly.
                  We should have a passion for living and the interest to pursue our chosen hobbies. We may have retired from our office work, but we should never think of retiring from our hobbies.
              Generally long-lived people are very moderate in their personal habits. Whether they eat, drink or smoke they do everything in moderation. They are also persons who worry the least. Japan’s Shigechiyo Izumi attained the unbelievable age of 118 in 1983. He had made it to the Guinness Book of World
Records, as the longest living human being in the world. A newspaper reporter
asked him for the secret of his longevity. He replied in just two words,    
                     "Not Worrying"

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Indian parliament-1

PARLIAMENT

 Articles 79 to 122 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the organisation, composition, duration, officers,
procedures, privileges, powers and so on of the Parliament.

Organisation of Parliament

 The Parliament of India consists of three parts viz, the President, the Council of States and the House of
the People.

 In 1954, the Hindi names ‗Rajya Sabha‘ and ‗Lok Sabha‘ were adopted by the Council of States and the
House of People respectively.

 The Rajya Sabha is the Upper House (Second Chamber or House of Elders) and the Lok Sabha is the
Lower House (First Chamber or Popular House).

 The RSrepresents the states and union territories of the Indian Union, while the LS represents the people
of India as a whole.

 The President of India is not a member of either House of Parliament and does not sit in the Parliament
to attend its meetings, he is an integral part of the Parliament. This is because a bill passed by both the
Houses of Parliament cannot become law without the President‘s assent.

 The president summons and pro- rogues both the Houses, dissolves the Lok Sabha, addresses both the
Houses, issues ordinances when they are not in session, and so on.
Composition of the Two Houses
Composition of Rajya Sabha

 The maximum strength fixed at 250, out of which, 238 are to be the representatives of the states and union
territories (elected indirectly) and 12 are nominated by the president.

 The Fourth Schedule of the Constitution deals with the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha to the states
and union territories.

1. Representation of States

 The representatives of states elected by the elected members of state legislative assemblies.

 held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

 The seats are allotted to the states on the basis of population.

2. Representation of Union Territories 

 The representatives of each union territory are indirectly elected by members of an electroral college
specially constituted for the purpose.

 election is also held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single
transferable vote.

 Out of the seven union territories, only two (Delhi and Puducherry) have representation in Rajya Sabha.

 The populations of other five union territories are too small to have any representative in the Rajya Sabha.

3. Nominated Members 

 The president nominates 12 members to the Rajya Sabha from people who have special knowledge or
practical experience in art, literature, science and social service.
Composition of Lok Sabha
The maximum strength fixed at 552. Out of this, 530 members are to be the representatives of the states, 20
members are to be the representatives of the union territories and 2 members are to be nominated by the
president from the Anglo-Indian community.

1. Representation of States

 The representatives of states are directly elected by the people from the territorial constituencies in the
states.

 based on the principle of universal adult franchise.

 Every Indian citizen who is above 18 years of age and who is not disqualified under the provisions of
the Constitution or any law is eligible to vote at such election.

 The voting age was reduced from 21 to 18 years by the 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988.

2. Representation of Union Territories

 The Constitution has empowered the Parliament to prescribe the manner of choosing the representatives of
the union territories in the Lok Sabha.

 Accordingly, the Parliament has enacted the Union Territories (Direct Election to the House of the
People) Act, 1965, by which the members of Lok Sabha from the union territories are also chosen by
direct election.

3. Nominated Members

 The president can nominate two members from the Anglo-Indian community if the community is not
adequately represented in the Lok Sabha.

 Originally, this provision was to operate till 1960 but has been extended till 2020 by the 95th Amendment
Act, 2009.
System of Elections to Lok Sabha
The various aspects related to the system of elections to the Lok Sabha are as follows:
Territorial Constituencies
In this respect, the Constitution makes the following two provisions:

1. Each state is allotted a number of seats in the Lok Sabha in such a manner that the ratio between that
number and its population is the same for all states. This provision does not apply to a state having a
population of less than six millions.

2. Each state is divided into territorial constituencies in such a manner that the ratio between the population
of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it is the same throughout the state.

Duration of Two Houses

Duration of Rajya Sabha

 The Rajya Sabha (first constituted in 1952) is a continuing chamber, that is, it is a permanent body and
not subject to dissolution.

 one-third of its members retire every second year.

 Their seats are filled up by fresh elections and presidential nominations at the beginning of every third
year.

 The retiring members are eligible for re-election and renomination any number of times.

 the Parliament in the Representation of the People Act (1951) provided that the term of office of a member
of the Rajya Sabha shall be six years.

Duration of Lok Sabha

 The Lok Sabha is not a continuing chamber.

 Its normal term is five years from the date of its first meeting after the general elections, after which it
automatically dissolves.

 the President is authorised to dissolve the Lok Sabha at any time even before the completion of five years
and this cannot be challenged in a court of law.

 the term of the Lok Sabha can be extended during the period of national emergency be a law of Parliament
for one year at a time for any length of time.

 this extension cannot continue beyond a period of six months after the emergency has ceased to operate.

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Public speaking is an Art

People who speak effectively are likely to become leaders. Very often the time that is devoted to public speaking pays off well. It is the wisest investment of time and money. Studies reveal that public speaking contributes to about 80 percent of your success in life.

             Anyone can improve his speaking skill. All you have to do is to learn. The two steps in making any speech                  " preparation and delivery" both are equally important. 

              As a speaker you must consider the following four points.

1. Pick up the right subject to know what you are talking about and to believe in what you are trying to speak.

2. You must know how to begin and end your speech. A speech falls naturally into three parts- the approach, the main facts and the conclusion. Remember to organise your points logically. You may type your notes on small cards.

3. Rehearse in private your speech. You need to practice your speech before delivering it.

4. Public speaking is always a matter of communication. A flat voice is most often found in memorised speeches or by just plain reading. Your voice should rise and fall. A little eagerness, zeal and joy in your voice can bring about happiness to others. It can be effective as a tonic that gives energy.

   Don't be in a great hurry to start. Settle yourself before you begin. Show interest. Your first few seconds are more important than your next few minutes. Say sometimes in the first minute of your talk that will immediately attract the attention of your audience. Another thing is important. Think clearly, speak plainly and mean it. Be enthusiastic about what you are saying. Success in public speaking is 50 percent showmanship and 50 percent message. Your personality - charm, energy cleverness, etc. contributes  to the success of your speech.

           Be sure to look at the audience and keep up eye contact. Seek out friendly faces and pay no attention to any that are not. Get eye contact, even persons sitting close to you on the dais.

     "Well begun is half done", the well known proverb id aptly applicable to public speaking. Begin with a smile. A short light-hearted story of some happening or about some person often makes an effective beginning. The tongue should be perfectly relaxed.

           Breathing deeply will give you one third more energy. Humour is very important or absolutely necessary in the beginning of your speech. This will help you and audience relax.

      Right posture can give you the confidence and support. Try to keep your both arms bent at the elbows which will be a ready posture for any gesture.

      Stop for a short time to catch your breath at appropriate moment. Give the listeners time to breathe. This will be very useful to draw the attention of your audience.

      Keep your speech simple. Stay strictly within your time limit.

      Do not cram into your speech as many points as possible. Spoken language is totally different from the written language. Be sure that you stop speaking before the audience stops listening. Always leave the audience wanting more.

       The old saying "practice makes perfect" applies in public speaking too. Speaking engagements can increase your prestige in society. Public speaking is an art that can be learnt and developed. Once you master this art, any public speaking can be a pleasure.
        

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Scramjet Engine

A scramjet (supersonic combusting ramjet) is a variant of a ramjet airbreathing jet engine in which combustion takes place in supersonic airflow.

             A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to compress incoming air for combustion without a rotating compressor. Fuel is injected in the combustion chamber where it mixes with the hot compressed air and ignites. A ramjet-powered vehicle requires an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust.

Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) and can operate up to speeds of Mach 6. However, the ramjet efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.

A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at hypersonic speeds and allows supersonic combustion. Thus it is known as Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, or Scramjet. 

A dual mode ramjet (DMRJ) is a type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into scramjet over Mach 4-8 range, which means it can efficiently operate both in subsonic and supersonic combustor modes. 

Advantages of scramjet engineEdit

1. Does not have to carry oxygen
2. No rotating parts makes it easier to manufacture than a turbojet
3. Has a higher specific impulse (change in momentum per unit of propellant) than a rocket engine; could provide between 1000 and 4000 seconds, while a rocket typically provides around 450 seconds or less.^[35]
4. Higher speed could mean cheaper access to outer space in the future

Disadvantages of scramjet engineEdit

1. Difficult / expensive testing and development
2. Very high initial propulsion requirements

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